By Shoen Shibata
Of all the amazing stories and remarkable people in the life of Nichiren Shonin, his relationship with Shinjō Kingo was something special. Westerners like to think of samurai as sword swinging warriors. In the reality of daily life they were the ‘salaryman’ of their time: accountants, economic planners, doctors, lawyers, and bureaucrats, but they had to solider up and serve their lord and do battle when duty called. Put under house arrest for a time when his lord was displeased with his following Nichiren, Nichiren wrote him a letter of encouragement and comfort.
“I still remember vividly how you accompanied me to Tatsunokuchi holding a horse by the bridle, and breaking into tears when I was about to be beheaded there. I will never forget this no matter how many lifetimes come and go. If by chance you should fall into hell, I will refuse the invitation of Śākyamuni Buddha to become a Buddha. Instead I will go to hell with you. If we both entered hell, how could it be possible that we would not find Śākyamuni Buddha and the Lotus Sutra there?”
The “Emperor Sushun” Letter
Sushun Tennō Gosho (ST 262)
When I read Rev. Shoen Shibata’s article on the life of Higuchi Keiichirō, Nichiren’s letter to Shinjō Kingo was the first thing that popped into my mind. Like Shinjō, Higuchi had his duty to do battle in the worst of circumstances. He walked through the growing radicalism of the 1920s with a clear mind. He flatly rejected the ideologue agenda of Kita Ikki and his dangerous followers. He understood the promise that Takana Chikaku’s Nichirenism held for many, of which Miyazawa Kenji was a follower, but chose a more personal and practical path, one that led to acting decisively to save Jews fleeing the European holocaust based on his faith in the Lotus Sutra and the spirit of Never-Despising Bodhisattva: “You will become Buddhas.” He stood up to Tojo who backed down and shut up. He went to told Kita Ikki’s house and told him he was wrong. That he walked away from those encounters without repercussions speaks to his character and his standing. He lived through hell but didn’t wish it on others. ‘I will go to hell with you,’ and we’ll find the Buddha and the Lotus Sutra there.
Many thanks to Reverend Shoen Shibata for his kind permission to translate this article into English. The article was published in the June 2021 issue of the Japanese Nichiren Shu publication ‘Shuho’ (日蓮宗宗報 2021年06月号)
Translation and forward by Kanjo Bassett
The most horrific discrimination, persecution, and genocide in modern history was undoubtedly the Holocaust of Jews under Nazi Germany during World War II. Amid this unprecedented barbarity, a Nichiren Buddhist boldly took up the fight.
Higuchi Kiichiro (1888–1970), a Lieutenant General in the Imperial Japanese Army, defied government and military orders to save 20,000 Jews from the Hitler regime. His convictions, faith, and actions hold the potential to provide significant clues toward resolving humanity’s chronic ailments of discrimination, persecution, and genocide.
Military Academy Years
Higuchi Kiichiro was born in 1888 on Awaji Island, Hyogo Prefecture. In 1909, he enrolled in the Imperial Japanese Army Academy, said to be “more difficult than Tokyo University.” Among his classmates was a young man named Ishiwara Kanji (1889–1949), and the two hit it off, becoming close friends. One day, Ishiwara introduced Higuchi to the Kokuchukai, a religious and political organization led by Tanaka Chigaku (1861–1939).
The Kokuchukai was an organization striving to realize “Rissho Ankoku” (establishing true Dharma and peace in the land) on a global scale, based on the teachings of Nichiren Shonin. Higuchi and Ishiwara became increasingly devoted to Nichirenism. The Kokuchukai advocated for “Hakkō Ichiu” (unifying the world under the Emperor) and insisted that its ideology and morality must be grounded in Nichiren Buddhism. Around this time, under the banner of “Nichirenist literature,” the group invested efforts in literature and theater and sought to advance into politics, though neither yielded significant results.
Higuchi later reflected in his memoir, *Atsu-Kisuka* (written by himself, hereafter *Memoirs*), “I couldn’t keep up with their rapidly shifting movements—religious enlightenment, religious literary campaigns, and religious-political activities.” Gradually, he distanced himself from them. Higuchi noted in his *Memoirs* that he was “interested in the significance and value of the “The Duration of the Life of the Tathagata” Chapter of the Lotus Sutra,” indicating his focus was purely on Nichiren Shonin’s teachings. He also developed a passion for mastering German and Russian.
Meanwhile, Ishiwara gained immense trust from Tanaka Chigaku and became increasingly engrossed in the group’s activities.
From Overseas Attaché to Domestic Service
Fluent in Russian and German, Higuchi, after graduating from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy, was stationed in the newly revolutionized Soviet Union and Korea before being assigned as a military attaché to Poland. This was in 1925. In Warsaw, he lodged with a Jewish family, forging close ties with the Jewish community.
In that same year, Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) published Mein Kampf and founded the Nazi Party in Germany, advocating for the exclusion of Jews and extreme nationalism. At the time, no one could have imagined that this small party would later plunge Europe into the depths of terror.
After thoroughly investigating military affairs in various European countries as a military attaché, Higuchi returned to Japan in 1928 (Showa 3). He was promoted to lieutenant colonel and assigned to the Shizuoka Regiment. This was a period when the Peace Preservation Law—which suppressed political thought—was amended (with the maximum penalty becoming death), and on the continent, armed clashes occurred between the Japanese army and Chiang Kai-shek’s National Revolutionary Army, gradually bringing the sound of war closer.
Upon arriving at the Shizuoka Regiment, Higuchi had a subordinate named Captain Matsutani Iwao. Matsutani was an eccentric who spent the entire day beating a fan drum and loudly chanting Odaimoku. He was regarded as a problem within the regiment and somewhat orphaned in the organization.
Higuchi called out Matsutani and tried to persuade him to stop beating the drum, but Matsutani, firm in his faith, stubbornly refused to listen. Finally, Higuchi said, “In that case, I will become your disciple—let’s go back to the dormitory and chant Odaimoku together. And you guide my faith.” With this, he got Matsutani to stop the daytime chanting. From this point on Higuchi and his family devoted themselves to chanting Odaimoku every day.
The following August, Higuchi was assigned to the newly established news/intelligence section of the Army Ministry, promoted to colonel, and returned to Tokyo. He was transferred to the reference/consultation department of the high command. That year, the London Naval Disarmament Conference was underway, and domestically, criticism of military reduction had intensified, with growing dissatisfaction especially among young officers.
Around this time, officers connected to the Ketsumeidan (Blood Pledge Corps) and the Kōdōha (Imperial Way Faction) began frequently visiting Higuchi’s home. Higuchi told them: “If you have concluded that no legitimate means can be found to achieve your aspirations and that there is no choice but to resort to illegal actions, then you must absolutely resign from your position as active-duty military personnel. Under no circumstances should you involve or make use of troops, including non-commissioned officers and enlisted men.”(From Kaikoroku / Recollections)
Among Higuchi’s direct subordinates was Second Lieutenant Aizawa Saburō (1889–1936). He was an Imperial Way Faction officer who later carried out the Aizawa Incident— the murder of Lieutenant General Nagata Tetsuzan in 1935 (Showa 10). Aizawa was deeply devoted to the ideologue Kita Ikki (1883–1937) and repeatedly urged Higuchi to meet with Kita. Higuchi, however, harbored strong doubts about Kita’s ideology and consistently declined these invitations.
One evening, Kita suddenly appeared at Higuchi’s home accompanied by Aizawa. Higuchi served them tea but kept the conversation light and avoided serious discussion, then saw them off. The very next day, Higuchi visited Kita’s residence and spoke frankly to him:
“The Emperor’s army must never be used as a tool for revolution. Even if — hypothetically — a state transformation based on Kita-ism were to succeed, any misuse of the military in such a way would inevitably lead to a second and third coup d’état, and true domestic peace in Japan would never be achieved.” Having conveyed this conviction, Higuchi took his leave.
Later, Kita Ikki was identified as the ringleader of the February 26 Incident. Despite being a civilian, he was tried by a military tribunal and executed by firing squad.
In 1933 (Showa 8), Higuchi became commander of the Fukuyama 41st Infantry Regiment in Hiroshima. He greatly enjoyed Hiroshima’s climate and customs, often engaging in fishing and leisurely walks. Later, in his Kaikoroku, he described Hiroshima as a Shangri-La.
In January 1933 (Showa 8), Adolf Hitler assumed the office of Chancellor in Germany, ushering in the Nazi regime (National Socialist German Workers’ Party). Amid the Great Depression, the German people—struggling under desperate economic hardship—placed their hopes in the extreme ethnic nationalism and socialism advocated by the Nazis. The regime began by asserting the exclusion of Jews, prohibiting marriages between Aryans (the “pure German bloodline” claimed by the party) and Jews, imposing restrictions on Jewish businesses and freedom of movement, and expelling Jews from public office. Persecution gradually escalated, forcing many Jews from their homes and driving large numbers into exile abroad.
Meanwhile, Japan faced international criticism over the Kwantung Army’s advance onto the continent and, in defiance, withdrew from the League of Nations. Isolated internationally, Japan began exploring the possibility of an alliance with Germany.
In 1937 (Showa 12), Higuchi was dispatched by the Army General Staff to inspect Germany. The purpose was to assess the actual conditions under the Nazi regime. What Higuchi observed was a Germany that had achieved remarkable reconstruction in just a few years, powered by advanced industrial capabilities. Upon returning to Japan, Higuchi reported that Germany possessed sufficient capacity to wage war against the Soviet Union.
That same year, the Anti-Comintern Pact (an agreement between Japan and Germany to jointly defend their nations against communism) was signed.
The Manchukuo Years
In August 1937 (Showa 12), Higuchi was appointed as head of the Harbin Special Service Organ (a specialized agency for intelligence and military diplomacy) in Manchukuo, with the rank of major general in the Imperial Japanese Army. Manchukuo maintained the outward appearance of an “independent state” recognized by many countries as being on friendly terms with Japan, but in reality it was a puppet state under the control of the Japanese Army.
At that time, around 15,000 Jews were living in Harbin. Many had settled there to escape the chaos of the 1917 Russian Revolution and the ensuing turmoil in the Soviet Union. In December of the same year, at the invitation of Dr. Abraham Kaufman—the leading figure in the Harbin Jewish community—the “First Far East Jewish Congress” was convened. Higuchi was invited as a guest of honor to the gathering, which drew about a thousand participants. Having maintained close ties with Jewish communities since his earlier posting as military attaché in Warsaw, Higuchi had been steadily growing more indignant about the Nazi regime’s persecution of Jews. Finally, in front of the large audience, his emotions erupted. From the podium, he declared: “I detest the policies of that country. If they are going to expel the Jews, they should first provide them with a place of secure refuge.”
The venue erupted in thunderous applause and cheers. In his Kaikoroku (Recollections), Higuchi noted, “I got a bit carried away with enthusiasm.”
This speech by a “Japanese major general delivering a pro-Jewish address” was transmitted worldwide via Beijing AP communications and carried in newspapers across various countries, causing a stir. In Japan, the German embassy in Tokyo lodged a strong protest with the Foreign Ministry and the Army Ministry’s General Staff. In response, Foreign Ministry-affiliated newspapers were instructed to investigate the extent of the repercussions from this statement and to exercise restraint in future comments.
Higuchi himself, however, paid little heed to the domestic and international uproar. The following year, in January 1938 (Showa 13), he gave a special interview in Russian. When asked by the reporter whether “General Higuchi sympathizes with the Jews (who are subject to discrimination and persecution in Europe and Russia),” he replied:
“Buddhism has the teaching of the Never-Despising Bodhisattva, which holds that one should revere and respect every person, even an enemy. Japan is currently at war with China (following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident the previous year, escalating into full-scale conflict), yet even in this Sino-Japanese Incident, we must love and respect China in the near future. This teaching means that the Japanese people harbor no hatred or harm toward the Jews either.”
He added that this is known as ‘Tangyō Raihai: deep respect for all living beings’, embodying the Japanese spirit of “respecting all people without exception.”
The Otpor Incident
In March of the same year, the depth of Higuchi’s understanding of this principle became evident. He was visited at Harbin by Dr. Kaufman. Kaufman reported that a massive number of Jewish refugees had arrived at the border village of Otpor in Manchukuo.
“If we leave them like this, they will all die,” the doctor pleaded in a voice filled with anguish. “General, please help them. They are freezing and starving in large numbers at Otpor.”
On March 8, 1938 (Showa 13), eighteen Jewish people arrived by the Trans-Siberian Railway at Otpor (present-day Zabaykalsk), a town on the border between the Soviet Union and Manchukuo. They were Jewish refugees fleeing from Germany and hoped to enter Manchukuo.
Subsequent trains brought more and more refugees in waves. Their numbers eventually reached several hundred.
To avoid confrontation with Germany, the Soviet Union refused to accept the Jews. Manchukuo’s Foreign Ministry, mindful of the Japan-Germany Anti-Comintern Pact and wary of displeasing their powerful ally, also denied entry.
In March, nighttime temperatures in Otpor plunged to dozens of degrees below zero. The refugees could only huddle together in tents pitched around the station building, shivering in the cold.
When Dr. Kaufman pleaded with Higuchi that “people are already freezing to death,” Higuchi immediately summoned officials from Manchukuo’s Foreign Ministry. After discussions, they agreed: “This is a humanitarian issue.” Visas were issued without delay, allowing the refugees entry into Manchukuo. Furthermore, Higuchi requested the South Manchuria Railway to arrange thirteen special trains of twelve cars each, dedicated to the refugees. He provided the freezing victims with warm meals, blankets, and medical care, then transported them to Harbin.
Now, Higuchi had acted unilaterally to protect the Jewish refugees—but naturally, this became a major diplomatic problem.
Hitler’s confidant, German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop, delivered an official protest to the Japanese government: “In Harbin, a certain Japanese Army major general has been criticizing and slandering Germany’s national policy. If this is true, I believe it will have no small impact on Japan-Germany relations.”
The Japanese Foreign Ministry was thrown into turmoil; they forwarded the protest to the government, which in turn passed it to Kwantung Army Headquarters. Kwantung Army Chief of Staff Tōjō Hideki (1884–1948) immediately ordered Higuchi to appear before him. When Tōjō demanded an explanation, Higuchi replied firmly:
“Chief of Staff, do you truly believe it is right to carry Hitler’s banner and bully the weak?”
Tōjō listened in silence, then decided to let the matter drop without further action. With Tōjō—who wielded enormous influence within the Army—backing this stance, the domestic uproar in Japan subsided for the time being.
The refugee relief route that Higuchi pioneered became known as the “Higuchi Route” by the Jewish community and continued to serve as a lifeline for Jews escaping Europe until the German-Soviet war broke out in June 1941, when the Trans-Siberian Railway became unusable. The total number of people saved is said to be as high as 20,000. Many of them passed through Shanghai and fled onward to the United States, Japan, and other destinations.
In operating this Higuchi Route, Colonel Matsutani Iwao—who had once joined Higuchi in fervent Odaimoku and drumming sessions during their time in the Shizuoka Regiment—also played an active role. Incidentally, in Higuchi’s later years, Matsutani visited Higuchi’s home in Ōiso, dressed in the robes of a Nichiren Buddhist monk (possibly from Nipponzan-Myōhōji), beating a fan drum and chanting Odaimoku as he went, which surprised Higuchi’s grandson, Higuchi Ryuichi.
In December 1938 (Showa 13), the Japanese government convened the Five Ministers Conference (involving the Prime Minister, Army Minister, Navy Minister, Finance Minister, and Foreign Minister) and decided on the “Outline of Measures for Jewish People” (ユダヤ人対策要綱).
The key points were:
Treat Jews fairly, the same as other foreigners.
When enforcing regulations on Jews, adhere strictly to fairness in line with “foreign entry” rules.
Avoid actively inviting Jews to Japan, Manchukuo, or China, but make exceptions for capitalists, technicians, and similar individuals.
Through this decision, the Japanese government clearly distinguished itself from Nazi Germany’s policy of exterminating the Jewish people.
Northern Army Command and World War II (1938–1945)
In July 1938 (Showa 13), Higuchi returned to the Japanese mainland and assumed the position of Director of the Second Department of the Army General Staff.
In 1939 (Showa 14), he was promoted to lieutenant general.
On December 8, 1941 (Showa 16), Japan entered the war against the United States.
In August 1942 (Showa 17), he took up his post as commander of the Northern Army in Sapporo.
In May 1943 (Showa 18), he issued the order for the garrison on Attu Island in the Aleutian chain to carry out “gyokusai” (玉砕, literally “shattered jewel”—a euphemism for fighting to the death without surrender). The lives of 2,638 Army and Navy soldiers were lost in the bitter cold.
The Aleutian Islands are U.S. territory extending westward from Alaska. During the Pacific War, this was the only place where Japanese forces temporarily invaded American soil. However, supplies could not keep up, leaving the garrisons on Attu Island and the neighboring Kiska Island isolated.
Higuchi had encouraged the garrison right up to the last moment, promising them, “We will definitely send supplies and reinforcements.” But the Imperial General Headquarters’ decision was to issue the gyokusai order instead. “Gyokusai” meant: “No supplies will be sent, no reinforcements will come. Surrender is not permitted.” In other words, an order to fight to the last man. When this decision was relayed to the local garrison, Higuchi reportedly broke down in tears. At the time, the southern front was already under extreme pressure, leaving no forces available to be diverted to the northern theater.
This was the first occasion on which Imperial General Headquarters employed the term “gyokusai.” As a result, Higuchi became the first general to issue a gyokusai order.
In July of the same year, he commanded the joint Army-Navy withdrawal operation from Kiska Island in the Aleutian chain (with Rear Admiral Akiyama Katsuzō leading the naval forces) and successfully evacuated 5,183 personnel. This operation came to be known as the “Miracle of Kiska.”
In December of that year, to commemorate and console the heroic spirits of those lost in the Attu gyokusai, Higuchi founded Jūfukyō-ji (常不軽寺, “Never Disparage Temple”) in Asahigaoka, Chūō Ward, Sapporo City (now an independent temple). On a stone monument standing in the temple grounds is inscribed in Higuchi’s own handwriting:
“衆生見劫盡大火所燒時 我此土安穩天人常住満“
(When sentient beings see the kalpa’s end, when great fires burn everything, in this my land it remains peaceful, with heavenly beings ever abiding in fullness.)
Around the time of the war’s end, Higuchi directed defensive operations against the sudden Soviet invasion of southern Sakhalin after the USSR unilaterally abrogated the Soviet-Japanese Neutrality Pact. Even after Japan’s surrender, as Soviet forces continued their advance, he defended the northernmost island in the Kuril chain—Shumshu Island (占守島)—repelling the Soviet landing forces and thwarting Stalin’s ambitions to seize and partition parts of the Japanese home islands. The fighting on Shumshu continued until August 29.
An enraged Stalin demanded to GHQ (General Headquarters of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers) that Higuchi be handed over as a war criminal, but GHQ refused the request. Jewish individuals who had escaped to America via the Higuchi Route carried out vigorous lobbying efforts with the U.S. Department of Defense and submitted strong petitions on his behalf. In the end, Higuchi never stood trial as a war criminal at the Tokyo Tribunal.
Postwar Life, Death, and Legacy (1945–1970)
In his later years, Higuchi moved to Ōiso and designated Myōdai-ji as his family temple. He subsequently relocated to Tokyo, where he lived peacefully with his family. On October 11, 1970 (Showa 45), after sharing dinner with them, he went to the toilet and passed away there. He met his end gently, without ever being confined to bed by illness even for a single day.
His posthumous Buddhist name was “Shinnyo-in-den Hakudō Nissai Koji” (真如院殿伯堂日季居士). He was 82 years old.
Reflections and References
The above is but a quick sketch of Higuchi Kiichirō’s life, with particular focus on the Otpor Incident.
What were Higuchi’s religious views like? It has been confirmed that they drew a clear line from the so-called “Nichirenism” that became overheated and fanatical at the time, as if gripped by a fever. He kept his distance from the line of thought running from Tanaka Chigaku to Ishiwara Kanji, and he explicitly declared that his principles and assertions differed from those of Kita Ikki. The fact that he designated Myōdai-ji in Ōiso as his family temple during his lifetime shows he was unmistakably a sincere adherent of Nichiren Shu.
Moreover, his rescue of Jewish refugees in the Otpor Incident was a measure taken purely from a humanitarian standpoint, and the guiding principle behind his actions was the spirit of the Never-Despising Bodhisattva’s ‘Tangyō Raihai: deep respect for all living beings’. To add further, postwar investigations by GHQ revealed that in the POW camps under Higuchi’s oversight, there was absolutely no mistreatment of prisoners.
In his postwar life, Higuchi is said to have lived constantly conscious of atonement for having ordered the gyokusai on Attu Island. In his home there hung a painting depicting Attu Island, every morning he bowed to it in silent tribute for the men who perished there under his command. For that reason, he almost never spoke of the Otpor Incident during his lifetime—so much so that even his family learned of it only after his death. As a result, today only a small number of Japanese people know Higuchi’s name.
Sugihara Chiune (1900–1986), famous for the “Sugihara visas” is well-known to many Japanese thanks to film adaptations and other portrayals. Yet, two and a half years before Sugihara saved some 6,000 lives, Higuchi saved as many as 20,000. At the very least, those within Nichiren Shu should remember Higuchi’s name.
Finally, regarding the stone monument erected at Jōfukyō-ji (常不軽寺, Temple of Never Disparaging Bodhisattva):
The phrase “Tenjin jō jū man” (天人常充満, “Heavenly beings and humans are constantly filling [the land]”) from the Lotus Sutra is inscribed as “Tenjin jō jū man” (天人常住満, with “jū” 住 meaning “to dwell” or “reside” instead of “jū” 充 “to fill”).
Takashi Hayasaka, author of Shikikan no Ketsudan: Manshū to Attsu no Shōgun Higuchi Kiichirō (The Commander’s Decision: The General of Manchuria and Attu, Higuchi Kiichirō), speculates in his book that this might be a clerical error or miswriting. However, the author believes that Higuchi deliberately chose the character “jū” (住, “to dwell/reside permanently”) with the profound intention that the spirits of the fallen soldiers of Attu Island might eternally dwell in the Pure Land of Sacred Eagle Peak.
Sources
In preparing this work, the following sources were consulted:
Higuchi’s own book Attsu-Kisuka Gun Shireikan no Kaikoroku (Memoirs of the Attu-Kiska Army Commander);
Rikugun Chūjō Higuchi Kiichirō no Ikun: Yudaya Nanmin to Hokkaidō o Sukutta Shōgun (The Admonitions of Lieutenant General Higuchi Kiichirō: The General Who Saved Jewish Refugees and Hokkaido), written by his grandson Higuchi Ryuichi;
Shikikan no Ketsudan: Manshū to Attsu no Shōgun Higuchi Kiichirō (The Commander’s Decision: The General of Manchuria and Attu, Higuchi Kiichirō), by Hayasaka Takashi;
and others, particularly Higuchi Kiichirō Shōgun no Ketsudan (General Higuchi Kiichirō’s Decision), authored by the Nichiren Shu priest Ono Fumikage.
In particular, Reverend Ono’s work is among the earliest scholarly contributions to Higuchi studies and is a valuable treatise written from the perspective of a Nichiren Shu priest. I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude for kindly granting permission to use his writings.
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